Ukiyo-e

Origins and Meaning

Ukiyo-e (浮世絵) literally means 'pictures of the floating world.' The term 'ukiyo' originally referred to the Buddhist concept of the transient, sorrowful world, but in the Edo period it took on a playful meaning: the world of fleeting pleasures. This included the pleasure quarters, kabuki theater, sumo, and seasonal festivals. Ukiyo-e began as single-sheet prints and illustrated books, produced using woodblock printing.

The process involved a publisher, artist, carver, and printer. The artist drew the design, the carver cut the blocks, and the printer applied color. Multiple blocks were used for different colors. This division of labor allowed for mass production, making prints affordable for common people.

Subjects and Styles

Early ukiyo-e focused on portraits of courtesans and actors. The first great master, Hishikawa Moronobu (菱川師宣, c. 1618–1694), established the genre in the 1670s. In the 18th century, Suzuki Harunobu (鈴木春信, c. 1725–1770) introduced full-color prints, known as nishiki-e (錦絵), or 'brocade pictures.'

Other notable artists include Kitagawa Utamaro (喜多川歌麿, c. 1753–1806), famous for his elegant portraits of women, and Tōshūsai Sharaku (東洲斎写楽), active only for ten months in 1794–95, known for his exaggerated actor portraits.

Landscape prints became popular in the 19th century, led by Katsushika Hokusai (葛飾北斎, 1760–1849) and Utagawa Hiroshige (歌川広重, 1797–1858). Hokusai's 'Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji' (富嶽三十六景) includes the iconic 'The Great Wave off Kanagawa' (神奈川沖浪裏). Hiroshige's 'Fifty-three Stations of the Tōkaidō' (東海道五十三次) captured travel scenes along the main road.

Technique and Production

Woodblock prints were made from cherry wood blocks. The artist's outline drawing was pasted onto a block, and the carver cut away the non-printing areas. For color prints, a separate block was carved for each color, with registration marks called kentō (見当) ensuring alignment. The printer applied pigment with a brush and rubbed the paper using a baren (馬連).

Pigments included natural dyes like indigo and red from safflower. Later, synthetic dyes like Prussian blue were introduced, which Hokusai used for his landscapes. The prints were often sold in series, and publishers competed for popular artists.

Influence on Western Art

Ukiyo-e had a profound effect on European painting in the late 19th century, a phenomenon known as Japonisme. When Japan opened its ports in the 1850s, prints were exported as wrapping paper for porcelain and tea, and Western artists discovered them.

Impressionists like Claude Monet and Edgar Degas admired the flat areas of color, unusual angles, and cropping. Vincent van Gogh copied Hiroshige's prints in oil, as seen in his 'Bridge in the Rain' (1887). James McNeill Whistler incorporated ukiyo-e aesthetics into his compositions. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec adopted the bold outlines and flat colors in his posters.

The influence extended to Art Nouveau, with its flowing lines, and to Post-Impressionists like Paul Gauguin. Ukiyo-e also inspired the use of asymmetry and negative space in Western art.

Decline and Legacy

Ukiyo-e declined in the late 19th century as Japan modernized and adopted Western printing techniques. The genre ended around the early 20th century, but its legacy continued. Shin-hanga (新版画, 'new prints') and sōsaku-hanga (創作版画, 'creative prints') movements revived the medium in the 20th century, with artists like Kawase Hasui.

Today, ukiyo-e prints are highly collectible. Museums worldwide hold major collections, and the works remain iconic representations of Japanese culture. The influence on manga and anime is often noted, though the direct connection is debated.

Common Misunderstandings

Many people assume ukiyo-e were always woodblock prints, but early works were also hand-painted. Also, the 'floating world' was not a metaphor for the impermanence of life in a Buddhist sense; it was a specific cultural phenomenon of the pleasure districts.

Another misconception is that ukiyo-e artists were poor craftsmen. In fact, they were celebrated celebrities in their time, and their works were mass-produced, not unique.

Further Study

To understand ukiyo-e, it helps to learn about the Edo period and the culture of the time. For Japanese learners, studying the vocabulary of art and history can be rewarding. See related terms like 'Edo period' and 'Japonisme.'